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Archbishop Thomas Cranmer 1489-1556

Thomas Cranmer lived the most extraordinarily complex life in very difficult times.  He founded the Anglican Protestant Church and more than any other cleric, was responsible for shaping the nascent Church and developing forms of worship that could be understood by the English in their own country.  He was witness to the monumental decisions and political manoeuvres, which separated and isolated his country from Catholic Europe and helped bestow on England, the island culture which pervades.

Thomas was born on 2nd July 1489 at Aslockton in Nottinghamshire, four years after Henry VII had ushered in the Tudor era.  When he was 14 years old, Thomas’ widowed mother sent him to Cambridge where he began an intense and lengthy period of study.  By 1515, he had been elected to a fellowship at Jesus College but, whilst studying for an MA, he married his first wife Joan, the daughter of an inn-keeper and Thomas was required to abdicate the fellowship.  Unfortunately, approximately 12 months later, Joan died during childbirth and Thomas was re-admitted to the Church.

St. John of Beverley at Whatton in Nottinghamshire where Thomas Cranmer worshipped as a boy

Cranmer was a natural scholar and became familiar with the European reform movement, which was energised by Martin Luther who ‘posted’ his written protests in 1517.  Almost certainly, Thomas would have been content to live out a life of study at Cambridge but the Tudor Court intervened and launched his  career in a direction that he could not have anticipated.

By 1526, Thomas had evidently established a reputation for himself because he was chosen by Cardinal Wolsey for a minor role with an English embassy to Spain.  Cranmer was back in England by 1527 and two years later, his life changed dramatically.

In the summer of 1529, citizens of London were being ravaged by a deadly plague so Thomas stayed with relatives at Waltham Holy Cross in Essex.  He was joined by two of his Cambridge associates, Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester) and Edward Foxe (Bishop of Hereford and Secretary to Cardinal Wolsey).  Inevitably, the three men discussed the dominant political issue of the day, the faltering marriage between King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon aka ‘The King’s Great Matter’.  The King and Cardinal Wolsey were tackling the issue from a legal perspective rather than a theological point of view and Cranmer thought that was unwise.  Thomas suggested that King Henry should put aside the legal case in Rome in favour of canvassing opinions from theologians in European universities.  Gardiner and Foxe later discussed Cranmer’s proposals with Wolsey and then King Henry, who liked the idea.

Henry, upon hearing the suggestion, summoned Cranmer for an interview.  Thomas was a man of steady character and fair-mindedness and it seems, he was also a talented wordsmith because after the interview, Henry required Anne’s father Thomas Boleyn to take Cranmer on as a house guest so that the cleric could focus his studies on solving the ‘King’s Great Matter’.  Thomas Cranmer was instructed to write a book on the issue and being part of the Boleyn household gave him the necessary means to do so.

This close connection to the Boleyn family yielded quick advancement in Cranmer’s career.  It has even been speculated that Thomas tutored Anne during this period, which served to increase his standing at one of the most tumultuous Royal Courts in English history.  Cranmer was adopted as Thomas Boleyn’s principal theoretician and strategist insofar as King Henry’s potential divorce was concerned and he found himself on an Embassy to Italy.  Ostensibly, the Embassy’s main goal was to convince the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was Catherine of Aragon’s nephew, that King Henry had legitimate reasons for abandoning his wife.  The English delegates believed that if they could persuade Charles V, the Pope’s blessing would follow.

No one truly expected Charles V to side with Henry so when the Embassy failed in its primary objective, the English were not surprised.  However, the trip gave Cranmer the opportunity to test his theories by canvassing opinions from European theologians and he obtained favourable rulings from the most respected universities at Ferrara, Bologna, Pavia and Padua.

In January 1532, Thomas Cranmer was appointed resident ambassador at the court of Charles V.  Cranmer spent his time in Europe collecting as many supporters for Henry’s cause as possible, though he was never able to persuade Charles V or the Pope that Henry’s marriage was null and void.  On 1st October 1532, Cranmer was in Italy when he received a royal letter informing him that he had been appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in place of the deceased William Warham.  Despite such news, Cranmer was not thrilled because he had a major problem: whilst in Europe, he had been secretly married and men of the priesthood were expected to remain celibate.

Because of his marital status, Cranmer was uneasy and reluctant about being appointed to the highly prestigious and powerful position.  He knew that prior to appointment, Archbishops of Canterbury had to acknowledge the authority of the Pope and Cranmer’s entire argument in Henry’s ‘Great Matter’ was based on the scripture trumping the authority of any man, including the Pope.  Cranmer delayed his journey home as much as he could, hoping he would fall off Henry’s radar.   He finally returned to England in mid-January 1533 where he learned to his disappointment, that his arrival was highly anticipated by King Henry and Anne Boleyn.

Despite his reluctance, on 30th March 1533, Thomas Cranmer was in a Chapel at Westminster Palace for his consecration as Archbishop of Canterbury.  In order to ease his trepidation on taking oaths regarding the Pope’s authority, Cranmer added a ‘disclaimer’ that allowed him to disagree with rulings of the Pope if they did not accord with the scriptures.

The office of Archbishop gave Thomas authority to try and judge Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.  He set out immediately to convince secular and religious authorities in England that King Henry had just cause to remove the case from the Pope’s jurisdiction.

Catherine of Aragon was popular with ordinary English people, so Thomas convened an Ecclesiastical Court at Dunstable Priory, well away from London where public disorder might threaten his intentions.  Thomas summoned Catherine and Henry to a hearing but Catherine did not wish to acknowledge that Cranmer had authority in the affair so she ignored the summons and was not represented at the court.

The Church of Dunstable Priory: the scene of monumental changes to English culture

Catherine’s refusal to accept the court’s authority only quickened the trial and on 23rd May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage between Henry and Catherine null and void.  On 28th May, the same court  announced that the ‘bigamous’ marriage between Henry and Anne, which had taken place in January of that year, was lawful.  Four days later, on 1st June 1533, Thomas Cranmer was in Westminster Abbey to crown and anoint the heavily pregnant Anne Boleyn, ‘Queen of England’.

This series of events prompted Pope Clement VII to ex-communicate Henry VIII and Thomas Cranmer but in any event, in September 1533, Cranmer was at Greenwich to baptise Anne Boleyn’s child, the future Elizabeth I, for whom Thomas stood as Godfather.

Anne’s Boleyn’s infamous 1000 day reign ended violently and on 16th May 1536, three days before her execution,Thomas visited Anne in the Tower of London and took her confession. If Thomas believed that the former Queen’s death marked the end of his tribulations, he was to be mistaken.

On 30th May 1536, Thomas officiated at the marriage of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour.  The marriage was short lived as a result of Jane’s untimely death and on 6th January 1540, the Archbishop married the King to his fourth wife Anne of Cleves.  That marriage  was doomed to failure and within six months, Thomas was arranging the separation.  In 1541,  Thomas had the unenviable task of informing King Henry that his fifth wife Catherine Howard, had been enjoying an illicit affair.

Thomas Cranmer performed his final duty for Henry VIII on 28th January 1547.  As the King lay dying at Whitehall Palace, Thomas held his hand and read a reformed statement of faith.

During the short reign of the successor King Edward VI, Cranmer was able to focus on making church services intelligible to congregations by gradually introducing the use of the English language in place of Latin.  He wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer.  The teenaged Edward VI suffered terrible illness and on 8th August 1553, Thomas officiated at the boy-King’s funeral.

Against his wishes, Thomas Cranmer was required to acquiesce in the substitution of Lady Jane Grey on the throne in place of the Lady Mary; this was a decision for which he received no mercy.  Thomas had played key roles in the demise of Catherine of Aragon and the Roman religion and they were going to be avenged.

On 14th September 1553, Cranmer was arrested and sent to the Tower of London.  On 13th November he was arraigned for treason.  His life was spared initially because Queen Mary’s regime wanted the influential Archbishop to deliver public recantations of his former ‘heresies’.  He was held at the Tower of London and at Oxford until 1556.  He was interrogated many times but held to his principles for much of that time.  Eventually Thomas relented and renounced his former beliefs, a decision which he regretted to the end.  On 21st March 1556, after retracting his earlier recantations, Thomas was dragged to the stake outside Balliol College in Oxford and burned alive.  Thomas met his terrible end with remarkable courage; he was 66 years old.

The Martyr's Memorial at Oxford marking the location of Thomas Cranmer's execution

This blog was written on 21st March 2012 by Paul Wiltshire and Melissa Beh from Washington DC

Tomb effigy of Elizabeth Hardwick Countess of Shrewsbury

When Elizabeth Hardwick Countess of Shrewsbury died on 13th February 1608, the curtain fell on a most extraordinary life.  Better known as ‘Bess of Hardwick’, she was approximately 80 years old, an outstanding achievement in itself.  Not surprisingly, she was buried in great state at the Church of All Hallows in Derby {now Derby Cathedral}; her tomb epitaph rightly commemorates Bess’ remarkable legacy.

This astonishing woman possessed great character and genius; she was astute, acquisitive and very skilful.  Bess could be extremely fiery and emotional but above all else, she was intensely ambitious for her  children.  She co-founded several glorious dynasties, which endured in the most spectacular fashion; she is the direct ancestor of Queen Elizabeth II.

Bess of Hardwick’s illustrious career spanned the monarchies of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I and James I.  She was undoubtedly the alpha female of her age and the counterpoint to ‘new men’ like Cecil, Wolsey, Cromwell and of course William Cavendish who all rose to prominence during the Tudor era as a consequence of their ability rather than their nobility.

When Bess died, she was probably the wealthiest woman in England, but things were once very different. Elizabeth was one of five children born into a relatively obscure family of the minor gentry who lived in a modest manor house, parts of which can still be seen amidst ruins, opposite the magnificent Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire.  When her father died in 1528, Bess inherited a dowry of just over £26 so the young woman had to rely on her looks, her wits and and her skills in order to compete in a world dominated by men.

It was through her four marriages that Elizabeth improved her status, acquiring wealth and properties befitting a woman with her special talents.

When she was in her early teens, Bess was placed ‘in service’ within the household of Sir John Zouche.  Whilst there, Elizabeth met and married the teenaged Robert Barlow, but the union was short-lived; Robert died within a few months of the marriage and Bess was granted the customary widows’ pension, which although modest, allowed her to support herself.

In 1547, the young widow married for a second time and what a spectacular marriage it was.  She wed Sir William Cavendish in a ceremony that took place in the Grey’s family chapel, at Bradgate Manor in Leicestershire.  Cavendish was successful, wealthy and respected at Court.  Together, Sir William and Lady Elizabeth purchased and developed glorious properties in the East Midlands, including the renowned Chatsworth Estate.  The marriage produced eight children but only six survived infancy and from them were descended the Dukes of Devonshire, Newcastle and Portland.  Ten years later, Sir William Cavendish died unexpectedly.  Bess was approximately 30 years old and was bequeathed considerable amounts of land and property.

In 1559, Lady Elizabeth married Sir William St. Loe, another respected Courtier and wealthy landowner.  The marriage was childless and when he died in 1564, he left most of his estate to Bess.

The abandoned ruins of the Old Hall at Hardwick

Bess was now nearly forty and had outlived three husbands.  Having gained in wealth and in business acumen, she was still very eligible and in 1568 made her fourth marriage to George Talbot the 6th Earl of Shrewsbury.  By marrying Talbot, Bess added the title of Countess to her name and rose yet higher in social status.  Shrewd to a fault, Bess cemented the union of the Hardwicks and the Talbots by arranging the marriage of two of her children to two of the Earl’s offspring.  This triple alliance is commemorated in the inlaid table which stands in the High Great Chamber at Hardwick Hall.

George Talbot was of very high standing with Queen Elizabeth I.  He had already been promoted to Lord Lieutenant of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Staffordshire by the time of the marriage.  After acquitting his Court duties well, Elizabeth I entrusted him with the responsibility of keeping Mary Queen of Scots under house arrest.  This arduous task lasted for the next fifteen years.  These years were marred by intrigue and scandal amd proved too much of a strain on Bess and George’s marriage.  By 1583, the couple were separated.  In 1584, Talbot was finally relieved of his charge and a reconciliation of sorts was achieved through the intervention of the Queen.

George Talbot died in 1590, leaving Bess, now in her sixties, a widow for the fourth time. Having gained the Hardwick Estate from her bankrupt brother in 1581, she could now devote sufficient funds and all her considerable energies towards building the new Hall. This fabulous mansion was completed in 1597 as a testament to her wealth and status.  It still stands, largely unchanged and contains a plethora of treasures, which Bess accumulated; the tapestries and embroideries, which were her joy and passion, have survived and are in remarkably good condition.

In the 18th century, the politician and English art historian Horace Walpole wrote of Bess:

‘Four times the nuptial bed she warmed,

And each time, so well performed,

That when each husband quit his billing,

He left the widow every shilling!’

Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire. The most complete and authentic Tudor mansion in all England

 This blog was written by Paul Wiltshire and Claire Hill

The First Tudor Monarch King Henry VII. Born 28th Jan1457 - Died 21st April 1509

On 22nd August 1485, the Tudor dynasty was ushered in after Henry’s forces defeated those of  King Richard III at Bosworth Field. The victory marked the close of England’s ‘middle age’ and signalled the beginning of the end for the murderous Wars of the Roses. Surprisingly perhaps, whilst we have several, contemporary images of Henry, we know little about the personality of this industrious and pious Welshman who brought about these momentous events.

Henry Tudor was born at Pembroke Castle on 28th January 1457, to the remarkable 13 year old Lady Margaret Beaufort, one of the most outstanding women of her age.  Margaret was a descendant of John of Gaunt, the son of King Edward III and it was from his mother that Henry derived his tenuous claim to the throne.

Henry’s father was Edmund Tudor Earl of Richmond. He died 3 months before Henry was born, probably from plague, after being captured and imprisoned by Yorkists. Edmund was in turn the son of Owen Tudor, who had the good fortune to meet and perhaps, marry the former Queen, Catherine of Valois, the widow of King Henry V.

Henry was part Welsh but he also had English, French and Bavarian blood in his veins. He was Earl of Richmond from the moment of his birth but his arrival was not heralded because it was not considered significant.  His parentage placed him firmly on the Lancastrian side in the divisive politics of his day.  The teenage Henry Tudor was unusually tall and dark-haired; he was athletic and rode well. His early, itinerant life-style nurtured an instinct for survival that was to serve him well.

When the Lancastrians were finally defeated in 1471, Henry was thrust into the limelight by a series of deaths, which made him the chief Lancastrian claimant to the throne of England and that spelt danger.  The boy was moved to different castles by his guardians until it was no longer safe for him to remain within striking distance of the victorious Yorkists.  Thus, in the spring of 1471, the 14 year old was taken by his Uncle Jasper to the coast for embarkation.  On route, Henry’s party was recognised, captured and imprisoned. The group managed to escape and made for Carmarthen Bay, where they boarded a boat to France.

Bust of the mature Henry Tudor by Pietro Torrigiano

After leaving Wales, Henry’s ship was forced by poor weather to land in Brittany, where he was welcomed and afforded protection by Duke Francis.  Henry remained in exile for the next 14 years; his command of the French language surpassed his knowledge of English and he learned much about the Arthurian romances that were so popular at the Court of Brittany.  It was reported that he became enamoured of a Breton woman who bore him an illegitimate son named Roland de Velville.

Meanwhile, back in England, the redoubtable Lady Margaret Beaufort continued to promote Henry’s claim to the throne.  When King Edward IV died in 1483, Richard III seized the crown.  Henry Tudor tried on one occasion to return to his homeland in triumph but the scheme was aborted and Henry was forced back into exile in France.

Richard III tried to persuade Henry’s protectors to hand him over so Henry Tudor took the initiative and went on the offensive.  On 1st August 1485, he left Harfluer in Normandy with an army comprised mostly of foreign mercenaries.  Henry landed in West Wales and made his way quickly to England via the midlands: at Bosworth Field, his men killed and deposed Richard III.

Most English people rejoiced at the prospect of peace after years of domestic strife.  Henry VII was crowned in Westminster Abbey on 30th October 1485. Three months later, he married the beautiful Elizabeth of York, thus uniting and calming the majority of Yorkist and Lancastrian factions. The couple had seven children but only four survived into their teenage years and just three of them, Margaret, Henry and Mary lived to enjoy adulthood.

Once in power, Henry had to learn quickly; his isolated and nomadic existence had left him short of experience in government. He was sophisticated and loved sporting activities.  He was understandably circumspect, particularly where the over-powerful nobility was concerned and he kept an unusually close eye on finances, which earned him a historical reputation as a miser.

The previous four monarchs had been deposed at one time or another and three of them had been killed in the process.  Not surprisingly, Henry’s primary objective was to secure the Tudor dynasty and he achieved this by skillful government. In the early and middle parts of his reign, he faced threats to his authority from two pretenders to the throne, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck.  Both pretenders were captured and treated leniently: Warbeck was executed but only after he had abused the leniency of his King by trying to escape from his prison.

Henry Tudor knew that a rich king was a strong king, one that was able to muster troops when necessary, to reward faithful service and to display ‘magnificence’ to subjects and foreign embassies. But Henry had inherited a bankrupt treasury and it is remarkable that he was he was able to turn things around so effectively.

Henry VII was neither an innovator nor a reformer, he simply used the administration that he inherited to maximum advantage.  Significantly, he avoided expensive and pointless foreign wars and profited from the administration of justice. He chose men of ability rather than nobility and had the knack of appointing ‘the right man for the job.’  He kept a tight rein on England’s nobles and peers and made it very clear to them that he did not consider them above the law; more importantly perhaps, Henry limited their ability to raise private armies or ‘retainers’.

Order was slowly restored to England during Henry’s monarchy.  He strengthened his political position and brought kudos to his dynasty by arranging strategic marriage alliances, most notably between his son and heir Arthur and the Spanish Princess Catherine of Aragon.  Moreover, Henry made several advantageous, commercial treaties with major European States.  Henry recaptured collective respect for England’s monarchy through great Court ceremonies and lavish displays of ‘magnificence’, a tradition that was to be carried to extremes by his son Henry VIII.

In later years, Henry Tudor’s reign was marked by tragedy. His eldest son Arthur, died in 1502 and his beloved wife died in childbirth the following year. It is possible that Henry feared for the future because, as he approached his 50th year,  he became increasingly suspicious of men and his government’s methods became harsher.

King Henry VII died of natural causes, in his own bed, which was a remarkable achievement in itself.  He left his country in the black and brought peace to a previously troubled realm.  The fact that his son came to the throne unchallenged and without violence, was an indication that Henry had successfully established the House of Tudor as the legitimate power.

The magnificent tomb effigies of Henry Tudor and his beloved wife Elizabeth of York

The brutal murder of Archbishop Thomas Becket in his own cathedral, outraged the Christian world

After 1164, the previously intense relationship between King Henry II and Archbishop Thomas Becket deteriorated beyond recovery.  Frequently, when former friends fall out, arguments are bitter and very personal and so it was with Henry and Thomas.  The King demanded money, which he claimed was owed to him from Becket’s term as Chancellor of England.  Henry II summoned the Archbishop to a council in Northampton and required him to answer charges of ‘contempt of royal authority’ and ‘malfeasance in office’: it all ended in tears and angry scenes.

For good reasons, Thomas believed that his life was in imminent danger so he decided to flee the country.  Fortunately, he was popular with common people, so when he made his move on a stormy evening in October 1164, Becket found plenty of willing hands to help speed him on his way to France.

Thomas lived in exile for the next six years; he was befriended by the French King and stayed at the Cistercian Abbey of Pontigny and then at Sens.  Appeals were made by both sides in the dispute to Pope Alexander III, who tried to find an acceptable solution. Unfortunately, Henry II was determined to ruin Thomas: he seized the Archbishop’s property and lands in England and persecuted his supporters.

In 1170, the Pope secured a tentative peace agreement and Thomas Becket returned to his diocese in England via the port of Sandwich in Kent, where he received a hero’s welcome.  Thomas probably realised that peace between him and the King was only temporary: evidently he was quite prepared to die for his beliefs.

Stained glass from a window at Chartres, depicting the return and welcome of Thomas Becket

In June 1170, the Archbishop of York, together with the bishops of London and Salisbury took an unusual step; they crowned the King’s son, ‘Prince Henry the Younger’,  at York, during the life and reign of his father Henry II.  This practice was intended to clearly identify the King’s successor and thus, prevent the anarchy seen during the 19 year reign of King Stephen.  This ‘crowning’ was a breach of Canterbury’s privilege of coronation and in November of that year, Thomas Becket responded by excommunicating the three men who had officiated at the ceremony.

Henry II was in Normandy when he was told about Becket’s response and he exploded with rage.  Several accounts of the King’s reaction have entered popular culture; the best known suggests that Henry asked ‘who will rid me of this turbulent (or low-born) priest’.  This was interpreted by four knights as a royal command.  So it was that Richard le Breton, Hugh de Moreville, Reginald Fitzurse and William de Tracy set off to confront this troublesome Archbishop; they arrived in Canterbury on 29th December 1170.  The contemporary eye-witness account of Edward Grim, who was himself wounded in the subsequent attack, tells us what happened next.

During that evening, as Vespers was being sung, the Archbishop entered Canterbury Cathedral via the north-west transept. Almost immediately, Thomas was confronted and attacked by the four, armed knights.  Becket received several violent blows to the head but it was Richard le Breton who delivered the fatal swipe with his sword, partially decapitating the Archbishop. It seems that the final strike was so forceful that the tip of the sword shattered when it hit the stone floor. An altar, close to where Thomas was murdered, was known thereafter as the ‘Altar of the Sword’s Point’. The tip of the offending weapon was placed there but in 1538, the original altar was destroyed.

News of the killing shocked Christendom and reactions were not confined to England, indeed representations of Thomas’ martyrdom appeared in various forms, all over Europe.  Two days after the murder, miracles were reported at Thomas’ tomb and 26months later on 21st February 1173, Becket was canonised by Pope Alexander III.

Immediately after the violent episode, Thomas’ mutilated body was placed in a marble tomb at the east end of the crypt but on 7th July 1220, 50 years after the assassination, Canterbury Cathedral witnessed one of the greatest ceremonies of the age; in the presence of King Henry III and all England’s Bishops and Abbots, the remains of Thomas Becket were transferred to a glorious new shrine in the rebuilt Trinity Chapel.

For centuries, the tomb of Thomas Becket was the greatest pilgrimage site in England.  The highly influential legends and practices that evolved around this man’s final resting place, shaped England’s medieval culture.  Geoffrey Chaucer immortalised Saint Thomas by weaving his marvellous 14th century tale around the characters who travelled the  ‘Pilgrims Way’, between London, Winchester and Canterbury. Several of Canterbury Cathedral’s 13th century, stained glass panels, illustrate the importance of Saint Thomas Becket to ordinary people.

In 1538, King Henry VIII had the fabulously rich shrine destroyed; cartloads of jewels and treasure were carried off by the King’s Commissioners including the ‘Regale of France’, a great ruby sent by Louis VII of France as an offering to Becket. The ruby was later set in a thumb ring and was worn by King Henry to symbolise the triumph of his State over the Church.  Henry VIII may have destroyed the shrine, but he could not eliminate the cult.  During or after the Reformation, Thomas underwent something of a stylistic makeover and was referred to thereafter as Thomas a Becket. The revised name was intended perhaps to glamorise the former Archbishop’s place in history and to put him on equal terms with Thomas a Kempis, a highly revered, 14th century German monk, who wrote an extremely popular book on devotion.

Today, the site of the former shrine is marked by a candle on the floor at the east end of Canterbury Cathedral. Stone steps in the aisle of the Trinity Chapel are worn by the feet and knees of the many thousands and perhaps millions of pilgrims who passed that way.  On 29th May 1982, Pope John Paul II knelt with the Archbishop of Canterbury and prayed on the stone where Thomas Becket was killed.

A lowly candle marks the site of Thomas Becket's shrine in the Trinity Chapel

Canterbury Cathedral, linked inextricably with the life and brutal murder of Thomas Becket

The history of Canterbury Cathedral, one of the world’s great religious centres, is linked inextricably with the life, murder and canonisation of Archbishop Thomas Becket.  Without the shrine, the flow of pilgrims and the commensurate wealth, Canterbury might well have become just another cathedral.

Literature and films have celebrated and dramatised the conflict between Thomas and his former friend King Henry II; they have invariably taken the theme of one man’s firm defiance of absolute authority.  Becket was usually presented as a champion of oppressed Saxons, who defended church liberties resolutely against an overpowering Plantagenet King.  In truth, things were not as straightforward as that.

Thomas was born, probably at Cheapside in London, on or around 21st December 1118.  His father Gilbert, of Norman extraction, was a  prosperous merchant who became Sheriff of London.  Thomas’ mother Matilda was from Caen in Normandy.  The young Thomas Becket was fond of study but he was taught also how to ride, hunt and joust, essential skills for a potential leader of men.  He was educated at the University of Paris, which at the time boasted the best schools in Europe.  During his stay there, Thomas took a vow of chastity, which suggests that he had already decided to pursue a career in the Church.

Following an intense period of study, in 1140 Thomas Becket returned to England, which was in the throes of ‘The Anarchy’ as the usurper King Stephen fought off a challenge from the legitimate heir, Empress Matilda.  However, following Stephen’s death in 1154, Matilda’s son succeeded to the throne as King Henry II, England’s first Plantagenet monarch; this was a pivotal moment in Thomas Becket’s life.

Theobald was Archbishop of Canterbury and he admired Becket’s energy and intelligence, so he recommended him to Henry II. Accordingly in 1155, Thomas was appointed Chancellor of England: he was the first Englishman in 89 years to occupy the post, a consequence of the Norman invasion.  He was an accomplished and extravagant courtier and more importantly, Becket became a close companion of the King. It seems that  Henry and Thomas took an instant liking to each other. Their mutual respect was based on common traits; both men tended to act quickly and decisively, they refused to mince words and both were hot tempered !

In 1159, Becket accompanied King Henry on a difficult military campaign in Toulouse, southern France.  Thomas showed his worth and even led troops into battle but the experience also coloured his judgment of  Henry II; the impact of that campaign on Thomas Becket, may explain why his attitude towards the King changed so dramatically in the years that followed.

Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury; destined for martyrdom

In 1161, Archbishop Theobald died in office and several months later, Becket was confirmed as his successor. In June 1162, the 43 year old Thomas was ordained and consecrated the 40th Archbishop of Canterbury.

King Henry II thought he had facilitated the appointment of a ‘King’s Man’: he would have expected his relationship with Thomas to continue in the same vein and probably believed that the Archbishop would put the needs of his King first.  But Henry was to be surprised and disappointed.  Immediately after assuming the office of Archbishop, Thomas resigned his position as Chancellor of England and underwent a remarkable change of personality.  He adopted a rigidly disciplined and zealous approach to his duties and pursued the life of an ascetic.

Before long, having eschewed the glamorous and occasionally immoral lifestyle to which he had been accustomed, Thomas began championing the rights of the Church over those of the monarch.  In 1164, King Henry responded by issuing the ‘Constitutions of Clarendon’, a series of 16 clauses, which asserted the judicial rights of the Crown.  Thomas initially agreed to the clauses but later withdrew his approval, thereby setting himself on collision course with the King.

The two former friends were arguing from opposite ends of the spectrum and a violent confrontation seemed almost inevitable as King Henry showed open hostility towards Thomas.  The Archbishop did not know it but this infamous dispute was to result in his exile and eventually his murder; Thomas Becket was destined to become one of the best known martyrs in Christian Europe and perhaps, the most famous Englishman of his day.

Queen Victoria, the mother of English monarchs. This photograph was taken in 1887.

1. Most people will know that Queen Victoria is the mother of all English monarchs.  On 20th June 1837, at the age of 18, she succeeded to the throne following the death of her Uncle, William IV. Victoria’s tenure continued for 63 years and 216 days, (that is 23,226 days), which makes her the longest reigning monarch in England’s long and illustrious history. When she died on 22nd January 1901 at the age of 81, Victoria was interred in the fabulous Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore, within sight of Windsor Castle. Victoria had nine children, most of whom played significant roles in shaping European monarchies. Two of her grandchildren, Britain’s George V and Germany’s Wilhelm II, were on opposing sides during the First World War.

H. M . Queen Elizabeth II

2. Queen Elizabeth II is hot on the trail of her famous ancestor.  Born on 21st April 1926, she is 85 years old,  which makes her the oldest monarch in English history.  This remarkable woman succeeded her father on 6th February 1952, when she was aged twenty-five.  It follows that on 6th February 2012, Elizabeth will have served Britain and the Commonwealth for 60 years, which places her second in my list of ‘all time greats’.  Without doubt, Queen Elizabeth II has witnessed and absorbed more changes than any other King or Queen of England.  Her monarchy has been exposed to the most intense, microscopic scrutiny, but she has always responded with dignity and resolve.  Elizabeth II has four children and her eldest, Prince Charles, has served or perhaps endured, the longest term ever as heir to this country’s throne. If Elizabeth is to surpass Queen Victoria, she must stay in power until 10th September 2015, when she will be 89 years old.

King George III who sits third in this test of longevity, despite his bouts of madness

3. King George III, famed for his occasional bouts of insanity, came to the throne on 25th October 1760, when he was 22 years old.  His son the Prince of Wales, served as Regent during the King’s ‘madness’ but George remained in power notionally until his death on 29th January 1820 when he was 81 years old, a feat that looked highly unlikely during the early part of his life. His reign of 59 years and 96 days puts him third in this list of elite rulers.

George survived several assassination attempts and in 1762, he purchased Buckingham House, now called Buckingham Palace, in St. James Park for £21,000.  Despite his German antecedents, George was the most patriotic British monarch imaginable.  The reasons for King George’s apparent periods of insanity have never been satisfactorily explained, although it was reported that in 1764, during his 26th year, he suffered an attack of porphyria, often called the ‘royal malady’, which can cause insanity.

4. One has to regress nearly 800 years for the fourth, longest reigning monarch.  King Henry III, the son of King John, was born on 1st October 1207 and he came to the throne 9 years later on 19th October 1216.  His troubled reign continued for 56 years and 29 days. His greatest legacy is undoubtedly Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the form that we see today.

5. Next comes the great medieval Warrior-King Edward III, who was born in Windsor Castle on 13th November 1312.  His succession, which was a rather clumsy, political affair occurred on 25th January 1327 when Edward was 14 years old and his reign continued over 50 years and 147 days until his death at the age of 64, on 21st June 1377.  King Edward’s monarchy was quite extaordinary. He led England into the early stages of the ‘Hundred Years War’ against France and in 1348, his country experienced the first outbreaks of Bubonic Plague. In the same year, Edward III founded what is now the oldest order of chivalry in the world, ‘The Order of the Garter’ and he nominated Saint George as the order’s Patron Saint.

6. Sixth place goes to perhaps our most illustrious, celebrated and glamorous ruler, Elizabeth I who was born on 7th September 1533.  She was 25 years old before she succeeded to the throne on 17th November 1558, following the death of her much troubled half-sister Mary I.  During an incredible tenure of 44 years and 127 days, Queen Elizabeth I survived numerous attempts on her life and her monarchy. She rejected all offers of marriage, defied Catholic Europe and defeated the huge Spanish Armada sent by Philip II to invade England. The Court of Elizabeth I is still the most famous and prestigious in world history.

7. During the 15th century, the English crown changed hands 5 times as the ‘Wars of the Roses’ ripped England apart.  The turbulent and interrupted reign of Henry VI was symptomatic of this violent era. King Henry VI was only 8 months old when he succeeded to England’s throne on 31st August 1422, following the death of his more famous father, Henry V. He was deposed for a short period by Edward IV and his reign of 38 years and 347 days was brought to a violent end on or around 21st May 1471, when he was almost certainly murdered in the Tower of London.

8. It will surprise readers perhaps to learn that eighth position is taken by a monarch who died nearly 1000 years ago.  The reign of King Aethelred ‘The Unready’ began notionally on 18th March AD978 and continued over 38 years and 36 days until his death on St. George’s Day 23rd April 1016. His kingship was disrupted and bedevilled by Viking raids and wars; it was interrupted in 1013 when Aethelred had to flee to Normandy for a while.

9. Next in line is a giant of a man in every sense of the word.  Born at Greenwich Palace on 28th June 1491, Henry VIII was 17 years old when he came to the throne on 21st April 1509; his grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort served as Regent until Henry reached his 18th birthday, later that year. During a phenomenal reign of 37 years and 281 days, Henry made more changes to England’s political, geographic and religious landscapes than any monarch before or since.  Henry VIII was 55 years old when he suffered a rather ignominious death on 28th January 1547.

10. King Henry I was nicknamed ‘Bleauclerc’ meaning ‘fine scholar’.  He was the youngest child of William the Conqueror and was born in Yorkshire in September 1068.  He came to the throne on 2nd August 1100 aged 31, following the ‘accidental’ death of his older and unpopular brother William II.  Henry’s tenure lasted 35 years and 120 days . When Henry died at the age of 67, reportedly after eating lampreys (eel-like fish), the country erupted into civil war between his daughter Matilda and his nephew Stephen.

A romantic portrayal of the tragic ending of the life of Lady Jane Grey

At the other end of the scale, one should not forget the least influential of all English monarchs, Lady Jane Grey whose story is perhaps the most tragic in our history.  On 10th July 1553, Lady Jane was pronounced Queen, a situation brought about by her own father and her wicked father-in-law. After 9 days only, Jane’s supposed reign was terminated after the appointment of the legitimate heir, Queen Mary I.  After being confined for 7 months at the Tower of London and despite being innocent of any known offence, Lady Jane Grey was executed in order to preserve the status quo; she was 16 years old.  The price of monarchy has always been very high.  Whilst our current Queen has to endure intrusions into her private life that would have been unthinkable less than a century ago, her predecessors suffered more from the machinations of resentful and over ambitious subjects who craved ultimate power.

Mary aged two.

Yesterday we laid Mary Amelia to rest after a life of 100 years and 5 months.  Her son Roland paid tribute to his mother by describing how the relationship between a mother and her children changes over the years.

A child aged 4 thinks, “my mum knows everything”.

A child aged 9 thinks “my mum knows quite a lot”.

The teenager aged 17 says, “my mum is so uncool; she knows nothing and is well out of touch”.

The child of 19 thinks, “I don’t need mum I can do this on my own now”.

The child of 25 believes, “my mum knew quite a bit about life actually”.

The child of 35 thinks, “I’ll ask mum before I take a decision”.

The child of 65 thinks, “I wish I could ask mum”…..

Mary Amelia is now at peace

Mary at 99